Abstract

As AI increasingly permeates all aspects of everyday life, governments are stepping in as regulators, outlining both the potential benefits and harms, as well as the ethical concerns associated with current AI advancements. In this context, a growing number of nations are developing national AI strategies (NASs) to prepare for the new ‘geopolitical balance’ that AI is expected to bring, paving the way to harness its potential effectively. To investigate NASs in the Arab region, we analyzed a dataset comprising the publicly available strategies of five countries (UAE, KSA, Egypt, Qatar, and Morocco) using thematic analysis. The aim was to understand how AI is represented in these strategies. The analysis revealed six key themes: AI as part of the national vision, AI as a booster for economic growth, AI as a creator of new job opportunities, AI as a facilitator of regional leadership, AI getting out of control, and AI as a threat to employment.

Introduction

As AI appears to permeate all aspects of everyday life, governments are on the scene as regulators, outlining both potentials and harms and ethical concerns that go along with current AI breakthroughs (Bareis and Katzenbach, 2022). In general, AI refers to “a collective term for computer systems that can sense their environment, think, learn, and take action in response to what they’re sensing and their objectives” (Jain, 2018, p.2). Examples of AI applications include chatbots, machine learning, and digital assistants (Jain, 2018).

In the global economy, AI is a major game changer, and "much of the value potential is up for grabs.” Within this context, a rising number of nations have started developing national AI strategies (NASs) in preparation for the new 'geopolitical balance’ that AI would bring about, paving the way to assist in harnessing its potential (Papadopoulos and Charalabidis, 2020). Governments develop their NASs to outline their vision in relation to AI, including the areas of concentration and actions it will take in this field. As such, a NAS is a guideline for coordinating government policy to maximize the potential advantages of AI and minimize systematic risks that may arise (Papadopoulos & Charalabidis, 2021).

As NASs are developed by scientists and policymakers whose intention is to legitimize AI’s use and deployment in the public sector, they concentrate on matters of national-level interest (Paltieli, 2022). Accordingly, these strategies stress that technology should be used to accommodate existing political cultures, not the other way around (Paltieli, 2022). In this respect, NASs consider AI’s ability to improve an “already-existing polity” rather than re-examining national priorities (Cath et al. 2018, p. 514; Ossewaarde and Gulenc 2020, p. 54). Nonetheless, Cath et al. (2018) assert that governments should play a different role, directing all actors toward the creation of a "good AI society."

In 2021, the OECD AI policy observatory (OECD.AI, 2021) estimated that more than 200 national AI strategies and plans worldwide have been issued thus far. There has never been a time in global history when so many nations have released policy documents almost simultaneously on a single technology (Papadopoulos and Charalabidis, 2020). This fact suggests that artificial intelligence is a top governmental priority and a novel arena for interstate rivalry (Papadopoulos & Charalabidis, 202).

It was in March 2017 that Canada first published its NAS, promoting the usage and advancement of AI (Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 2017). Soon afterward, in October 2017, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) became the first nation in the world to establish a Ministry for Artificial Intelligence and issue its NAS (ArabianBusiness.com, 2019). After that, many countries developed NASs or master plans to articulate their vision and create an environment that fostered the growth and application of AI technology (Papadopoulos & Charalabidis, 2020).

Over the past years, more and more nations have developed AI strategies, action plans, and policies, indicating that they recognize that AI needs to be a top priority. Within this context, there is a “growing ambition of many countries to lead in the AI race” (Papadopoulos and Charalabidis, 2020). This perception encapsulates a particular attitude among governments looking to take the lead early in this race. This sentiment is well-expressed in some of the NASs, such as the United Arab Emirates, which positions itself as a leader in the AI race.¹See the NASs of Finland, 2017; Germany, 2018; India, 2018, Norway 2020, The United Kingdom, 2018, and The Netherlands, 2019 (Paltieli, 2022).

In the Arab region, five strategies have been published by Arab countries, namely United Arab Emirates (2018), Qatar (2018), Qatar, Egypt (2019), Saudi Arabia (2020), and Jordan (2020) (see Table 1). In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the NASs published across the Arab region with regard to how AI is portrayed in them.

The article begins by outlining the methodology used to analyze national AI strategies as policy documents. It then assesses the readiness of the Arab region for AI based on the AI readiness index rankings. Following this, the article provides an overview of AI practices currently being implemented in the region. It also examines the landscape of national AI strategies (NASs), detailing who issues each strategy, the stated vision and mission, the objectives, the sectors addressed, and the potential benefits and risks of AI as published in each strategy. Finally, the article reflects on the various ways AI is represented and portrayed in these strategies, considering its potential impact and agency.

Methodology

To investigate NASs in the Arab region, we first created a dataset with publicly published strategies. Five NASs were selected from the analysis (United Arab Emirates (2018), Qatar (2018), Qatar, Egypt (2019), Saudi Arabia (2020), and Jordan (2020). Two documents were excluded: Saudi Arabia's plan (as it is a webpage outlining policy topics without detailed discussion and Tunisia’s document (as it is only a methodology and action plan). Table 1 shows the utilized dataset.

Table 1: List of currently published NASs in the Arab region

	Date of issue	Country	Link of the NAS
1	February 2018	United Arab Emirates	https://ai.gov.ae/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/UAE-National-Strategy-for-Artificial-Intelligence-2031.pdf
2	2019	Qatar	https://qcai-blog.qcri.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/QCRI-Artificial-Intelligence-Strategy-2019-ENG.pdf
3	2019	Egypt	https://mcit.gov.eg/Upcont/Documents/Publications_672021000_Egypt-National-AI-Strategy-English.pdf
4	2020	Saudi Arabia	Saudi Arabia Strategy Narrative
5	2020	Jordan	https://www.modee.gov.jo/ebv4.0/root_storage/en/eb_list_page/40435648.pdf https://www.modee.gov.jo/ebv4.0/root_storage/en/eb_list_page/ai_final_-_english_version.pdf

 

The analysis of NAS documents necessitated the reading and re-reading (as emphasized by Armstrong, 2021) to draw patterns and themes. As the NASs (written documents) are intended to communicate and convey ideas and strategies to the stakeholders concerned, document analysis (content analysis) was considered the most suitable strategy. Paul (2003) argues that a researcher should draw meaning from the documents and their significance to the issues involved. At the same time, understanding the types of documents is vital for document analysis as it helps identify the right document analysis strategy (Armstrong, 2021).

According to Armstrong (2021), thematic analysis is a crucial strategy for document analysis. The thematic analysis allows a researcher to recognize patterns within data, with themes becoming 'categories' for analysis. Thus, the thematic analysis allowed deducing six categories from the five NASs analyzed. With the help of a research assistant, he followed the steps of 'familiarization (getting acquainted with data)', 'coding (finding keywords)', 'generating themes (drawing patterns and constructing categories)', and 'writing up (writing the final analysis)' as proposed by Braun and Clarke (Caulfield, 2023). The synthesis of these steps completed the analysis.

AI Readiness of the Arab region

The Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) report titled ‘​​Developing an Artificial Intelligence Strategy National Guide" (2020) mentions that depending on how ready they are for the digital age, Arab countries can be classified into three groups.

• “Level 1: Countries with low to medium digital readiness: Algeria, Comoros, Djibouti, Iraq, Libya, Mauritania, the State of Palestine, Somalia, Sudan, and the Syrian Arab Republic.
• Level 2: Countries with digital potential: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia.
• Level 3: Digital leaders: Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates”

Table 2 below illustrates the level of readiness of Arab countries to adopt and utilize artificial intelligence technology according to Oxford Insights. It shows that the UAE was the leading nation in 2019 and 2020, and Qatar is the leading Arab nation in 2021.

Table 2: Arab Governments’ AI Readiness Index for the years 2019, 2020, and 2021 (Oxford Insights, 2019; 2020; 2021). The top-ranked Arab country is highlighted in green.

Country	Rank 2019	Rank 2020	Rank 2021
Algeria	141	118	99
Bahrain	100	43	55
Comoros	189	153	N/A
Djibouti	180	134	N/A
Egypt	111	56	65
Iraq	156	116	104
Jordan	74	79	80
Kuwait	79	54	63
Lebanon	112	101	94
Libya	183	N/A	N/A
Mauritania	151	149	141
Morocco	80	99	84
Oman	59	48	49
Qatar	42	37	26
Saudi Arabia	78	38	34
Somalia	194	N/A	N/A
Sudan	187	158	151
Syria	175	171	N/A
Tunisia	54	69	77
United Arab Emirates	19	16	N/A
Yemen	152	172	160

 

How AI Is Projected in the Arab region

Technologies like AI are evolving with rich and long-standing cultures and narratives that influence how societies react to these technologies' advancements. These narratives help people make sense of their surroundings and have an impact on public discourse, policy responses, technology development, and use.

Countries in the Arab region are also sensing the revolutionary potential of AI, and they have drafted their AI strategies in accordance with the role they aim to play in the AI world. Many of these national AI strategies (NAS) share common themes and objectives. Within this context, the published NASs in the Arab region transmit and reflect diverse aims and narratives. These narratives contextualize and are contextualized in each country’s social, economic, and political aims.

So now, let us summarise how AI is envisioned in the Arab countries' NAS.

• In the UAE NAS, the vision is to establish the UAE as a global leader in artificial intelligence by developing a fertile ecosystem for AI, attracting and training talent, adopting AI across customer services and government, and leveraging AI to improve public value and solve societal challenges. The sectors mentioned in the strategy include administration, government, manufacturing, construction, healthcare, education, ICT (Information and Communications Technology) and Financial Services. The UAE believes that AI is projected to be a game changer that could thrust the growth of all the country’s sectors. Moreover, AI is regarded as a vital component of the UAE's centennial goal of becoming the best country by 2071. In the NAS of UAE, AI is portrayed as a transformative technology with the potential to revolutionize various sectors and improve the lives of citizens. The strategy emphasizes the need for government support, collaboration between stakeholders, and the development of a skilled AI workforce to harness the benefits of AI and ensure its responsible and ethical use.
• In KSA’s NAS, the vision is to be the place "Where the best of Data & AI is made reality." The aim is for KSA to become a global hub and a leading economy in utilizing and exporting Data & AI. The strategy script doesn’t mention sectors explicitly but states that Data & AI are massively transforming the world we live in, from businesses to industries to human lives. It also mentions that AI is already disrupting several sectors and provides examples of potential AI applications such as disaster management, road safety, and energy consumption management. Similar to the UAE, Saudi Arabia sees AI as an agent to fast-track the country's growth to achieve its Vision 2030. At the same time, Saudi Arabia wants to be a significant AI player in the Gulf region. In the NAS of Saudi Arabia, AI is portrayed as a disruptive force that is transforming various sectors and the world we live in. It is seen as a valuable resource, with countries referring to it as "the new oil" due to the opportunities it creates. Governments are framing their approaches to support and regulate AI, and many countries have developed or are developing national AI strategies.
• The vision of Qatar’s NAS is to make AI pervasive in all aspects of life, business, and governance in Qatar, aiming to become a role model for a seamless transition into an AI+X future. The sectors mentioned in Qatar’s NAS include ethics and governance, data and computing infrastructure, economic diversification, ethics and governance, education, healthcare, knowledge economy, and transportation. Qatar envisions an 'AI+X' future where AI is expected to be part and parcel of every aspect of human life, including, for example, health, entertainment, business activity, education, and research. Qatar portrays AI as permeating all aspects of life, business, and governance so that it becomes a role model for other countries to transition seamlessly into an AI+X future. In the NAS of Qatar, AI is portrayed as a transformative technology with the potential to revolutionize various aspects of society. It is seen as a key enabler for innovation, economic development, and the achievement of Qatar's national goals. The strategy emphasizes the importance of AI education, data access, employment, business, research, and ethics in building a successful AI ecosystem.
• The vision of the National AI Strategy in Egypt is to exploit AI technologies to support the achievement of Egypt's sustainable development goals and to establish Egypt as an active international player in AI. The aim is to utilize AI for the benefit of all Egyptians and to facilitate regional cooperation within the African and Arab regions. In Egypt, several sectors are where AI will be applied for development. These sectors include Agriculture, Water Management and Environment, Arabic Natural Language Processing, Economic Planning and Growth, Healthcare, Finance and Banking, Manufacturing, and Smart Infrastructure Management. Egypt envisions AI as having the radical transformative potential to disrupt economic and social systems worldwide and bring about the most considerable metamorphosis of the labor market since the Industrial Revolution. The country's AI strategy believes AI will contribute significantly to GDP growth by 2030. In Egyptian NAS, AI is projected as a great disruptor of the labor market and a carrier of massive technological transformation, having both promise and fear. AI promises a lot, as it has the potential to streamline access, 'overcome staff shortages, and reduce risks and costs in health and education. However, AI also poses specific fears as it might reinforce gender inequality, spiral out of control, and endanger culture and language. In the NAS of Egypt, AI is portrayed as a transformative technology that offers promising opportunities for Egypt's development and the improvement of Egyptians' quality of life. The strategy emphasizes the importance of AI in various sectors, including agriculture, healthcare, economic planning, and manufacturing. It also highlights the need for human-centric AI, responsible deployment, and multi-stakeholder dialogue to address the challenges and ensure AI is used for the greater good.
• In Jordan, the government's vision, as reflected in the policy, is to harness AI as an essential element to increase the effectiveness and performance of public and private institutions. The aim is to develop Jordan's position in the region as a leading country pursuing AI advantages while preventing its potentially negative consequences. The sectors mentioned in Jordon’s strategy include agriculture, cybersecurity, energy and clean technology, environment, financial services, health, justice and community protection, industry, transportation, and telecommunications. Interestingly, Jordan's AI strategy sees AI as narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor while boosting economic growth and cutting employment. Jordan's NAS envisions AI to be a vehicle for reducing unemployment and bridging the gap between the rich and the poor. AI is also portrayed as promoting economic growth through new business models by improving the performance of public and private sector institutions. In the NAS of Jordan, AI is portrayed as a leading technology that plays a vital role in the development of a sustainable digital-led economy. It is seen as a tool that can improve the efficiency and quality of government services, accelerate economic development, and create an environment that encourages innovation and entrepreneurship. The policy emphasizes the importance of embracing AI as a national strategic priority, positioning Jordan as a strong regional tech hub, and contributing to the achievement of sustainable development goals. AI is recognized as a transformative technology with the potential to positively impact various sectors of society and the economy.

 

We find that all the national strategies emphasize that AI could be a significant driver in their national growth while helping countries achieve their broader goals (e.g., Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030). Nevertheless, the published NASs in the Arab region transmit and reflect diverse aims and narratives to reflect particular visions be grouped as:

1. AI as a part of the national vision: AI is expected to help achieve broader and long-term goals of countries, such as the UAE's vision of 'becoming the best in the world by 2070'.
2. AI as a booster for economic growth: AI has the potential to increase economic GDP growth through greater productivity, efficiency, and cost-cutting. AI-powered sectors such as healthcare, education, and transportation are expected to contribute up to 25 percent to the GDP.
3. AI as creating new job opportunities: Creating jobs like big data analyst, natural language processor, and business intelligence facilitator. Moreover, AI experts could be recruited to help professionals in traditional occupations, such as lawyers and doctors.
4. AI as facilitating regional leadership: Countries that implement and apply AI at a rapid pace could leapfrog the AI race and strengthen their leadership in a world dominated by AI.
5. AI getting out of Control: Over-dependence of significant industries on software poses a massive danger of digital breakdown and cyberwarfare. The lack of regulatory oversight on AI-powered technologies further makes the systems vulnerable to digital disruption.
6. AI as a threat to employment: People and professionals who are not AI-ready face the danger of being rendered useless and ineffective by emerging AI technologies, especially in healthcare and transportation.

In the following table, the national AI strategies are analyzed according to the six categories listed above.

Table 3  - Blank boxes mean that some categories are not covered in the corresponding NAS.

	Egypt	Jordan	Saudi Arabia	UAE	Qatar
AI as a part of the national vision	Ensuring a sustainable future for Egypt by creating an AI industry leading to the development of skills, technology, ecosystem, infrastructure, and governance mechanisms.	Envisioning a national economy supported by an entrepreneurial environment that will foster unique and attractive technological transformations effectively supported by AI.	To become one of the leading economies utilizing and exporting Data & AI after 2030, a global hub where the best of Data & AI is made a reality.	The UAE's AI Strategy aligns with the UAE Centennial 2071 to make the UAE the best country in the world by 2071	To become a role model to other countries by adopting AI technologies on a massive scale aligning with local needs and traditions and transitioning into an AI+X future, as envisioned in Qatar's National Vision 2030.
AI as a booster for economic growth	AI and data-driven methods are promising a radical transformation of the economic and social systems worldwide. By 2030, AI is expected to add $15 trillion to the global economy, with countries fully capable of absorbing AI into the economies hoping to experience 25 percent of their GDP. AI is forecasted to contribute around 7.5% to Egypt’s GDP by 2030.	An Accenture report estimates that using artificial intelligence technologies will double the economic growth of many developed countries by 2035, with substantial gains in healthcare services, financial markets, retail, and transportation services. Therefore, the maximum diffusion of artificial intelligence in the Kingdom (Jordan) will contribute to economic growth.	A large amount of investment (estimated at an estimated 75 Bn SAR) to develop a domestic Data & AI ecosystem is expected to drive economic and societal growth.	If AI is adopted to the fullest extent in each industry, the UAE is likely to gain an additional output of AED 335 billion. This translates into a 26 percent increase.	AI will transform the economic and business landscape of new and existing sectors, such as gas and airline, facilitating rapid economic growth. The NAS should address this transformation.
AI as creating new job opportunities	AI research activities and technologies in Natural Language Processing, Machine Translation, Speech Technologies, Image Understanding, Computer Vision, Social Media Analysis, and Autonomous Driving cars are likely to pave the way for novel job opportunities in these areas. New AI startups are creating a niche for themselves.	Along with fostering entrepreneurship, innovation, and openness to the future, Artificial Intelligence will actively contribute to providing the labor market with new job opportunities.	Data & AI are rapidly revolutionizing labor markets worldwide. Most sectors are adapting to this change to maximize the benefits. The faster the integration of Data & AI into the education system, professional training, and general public knowledge has the potential to create employment opportunities.	The UAE has 22 percent of students in core STEM areas: ICT, engineering, and natural sciences. Upskilling STEM graduates with specialist courses will provide the fastest short-term solution to increasing the number of AI experts through new jobs. This upskilling will help the UAE talent able to build AI systems.	Qatar can leverage the AI revolution to realize its vision of transforming into a knowledge-based economy embracing AI technologies, making its people AI-skilled so that it could become one of the first countries in the world where citizens and AI technology can work together in harmony.
AI as facilitating regional leadership	Egypt aims to become a hub for ground-breaking AI innovations ensuring Egypt's superiority in the field, AI is only as valuable as the impact it can deliver. The Egyptian National AI strategy aspires to put Egypt on a trajectory of AI leadership by using AI to power and impact its GDP.	Jordan's NAS strives to make the country a regional leader in artificial intelligence by creating a unique and attractive technological and entrepreneurial environment that will foster practical, supportive artificial intelligence, an integral part of the national economy.	Using Data & AI will help achieve the objectives set under Vision 2030, accompany the transition, and focus on niche topics to serve internationally. It will ensure Saudi Arabia competes on the international scene as a leading economy utilizing and exporting Data & AI.	The UAE has a clear vision of becoming a world leader in AI by 2031, aided by its AI Strategy. Furthermore, by pooling in a global talent base and creating an AI brand (UAI brand), the UAE will become the center of AI startups in the region.	Utilizing AI in language processing, Qatar can be a world leader in Arabic language generation and processing. Moreover, with heavy investment in education and research infrastructure, Qatar has the potential to lead in an AI+X Future.
AI getting out of Control	There are also increasing ethical concerns about AI systems and issues such as bias, gender inequality, insufficient regulation, and the loss of nuances in culture and language, for example, through the utilization of Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems.	Suppose the confidentiality and privacy of individuals by neglecting data processing mechanisms and quality are compromised. In that case, ignoring the cybersecurity dimension and dealing with instances of security breaches of the data storage system at all levels threaten data centers and society at large.	Along with benefits and opportunities, Data & AI generate threats; therefore, governments need to frame their approach to support and regulate Data & AI to ensure the ethical use of AI.	The rapidly changing AI technologies require rapid changes in regulatory settings, which can create risks to society. The adoption of integrated data mechanisms and the growing dependence of significant industries on software make an economy vulnerable to digital disruption. The threat of cyberwarfare capability will steadily increase.	The Qatar NAS acknowledges the increasing pervasiveness of AI in personal lives and work, leading to many ethical concerns. AI methods are prone to adopt "black box" characteristics which often are not amenable to fairness, accountability, or transparency principles. Moreover, AI algorithms are likely to inherit biases inbuilt in data.
AI as a threat to employment	The increasing automation and autonomous AI systems may widen the technological, economic, and social gaps due to the need for more basic infrastructure and human capacity capable of exploiting this technology, especially in countries with a large proportion of low-skilled or unskilled labor. It may further lead to a massive labor transformation threatening marginalized groups not prepared for AI innovation.	The possibility is that the implementation of AI projects will lead to the loss of traditional jobs.		The UAE's NAS mentions that around 43 percent of existing work activities have the potential to be automated across administration, government, manufacturing, and construction, with about 125,000 of the jobs held by UAE nationals threatened. This shortage may have a significant impact on the public sector workforce and needs special attention.	Owing to the Qatari citizens' overwhelming presence in white-collar jobs, Qatari citizens, the threat of job tasks becoming susceptible to automation is genuine in Qatar.

 

Acknowledgment

This research had been developed as a part of the Knowledge as a Public Good Initiative by the Arab Reform Initiative.

Special thanks to Impact Circles e.V. Berlin for allowing us to use its resources to complete this research. We also would like to thank Omar Al-Qatamin for his ideas that contributed to the development of this article.

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